This is a working overview of somatotroph, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2026-07-02 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Signaling begins at the GHRH receptor, a class B G protein-coupled receptor displayed on somatotroph cells of the anterior pituitary. Receptor occupancy activates Gs proteins, which raise adenylyl cyclase activity and intracellular cyclic AMP, in turn driving protein kinase A dependent pathways. The downstream output is synthesis and pulsatile secretion of growth hormone into the bloodstream. Hepatic tissue and peripheral sites respond by increasing insulin-like growth factor 1 production. Somatostatin and IGF-1 itself supply negative feedback that caps the size and duration of each secretory burst.
Metabolic interest in this compound centers on fat distribution rather than on hormone levels alone. Imaging trials in adults with excess abdominal fat report reductions in visceral adipose tissue, while subcutaneous depots change comparatively little. Growth hormone and IGF-1 are presumed to carry the effect, but the separate contribution of each is not firmly established. Whether these changes persist after treatment stops, and whether they alter longer-term health outcomes, remain open questions that published work does not answer consistently.
A documented effect of tesamorelin is a reduction in visceral adipose tissue in some study populations. Researchers have reported decreases in trunk fat measured by computed tomography alongside changes in lipid markers. The mechanism is thought to involve growth hormone-mediated lipolysis, though the precise contribution of direct versus indirect pathways is not fully resolved. Studies have generally examined defined groups over finite periods, so long-term outcomes are less well characterized. Findings have not been uniform across all trials.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). Its sequence corresponds to the 44-amino-acid form of human GHRH with a trans-3-hexenoyl group attached to the N-terminal tyrosine. This modification slows enzymatic cleavage and extends the peptide's activity relative to the native hormone. The compound is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis and supplied as a lyophilized powder. Researchers classify it as a GHRH receptor agonist. Its structure places it in the same family as other growth hormone secretagogues that act on the pituitary.
Binding of tesamorelin to GHRH receptors on pituitary somatotroph cells triggers cyclic AMP signaling and the release of growth hormone into circulation. Because the peptide acts upstream of the growth hormone axis, its effects are partly mediated by hepatic insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) production. The pulsatile character of endogenous growth hormone secretion is preserved rather than replaced. Whether amplified signaling produces effects beyond those of native GHRH remains an area of ongoing investigation.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular class | Synthetic 44-residue peptide | GHRH analog backbone |
| Approximate molecular mass | 5136 Da | Varies with counterion and hydration state |
| N-terminal group | trans-3-hexenoyl | Increases resistance to dipeptidyl peptidase IV |
| Primary receptor | GHRH receptor (GHRHR) | Class B G protein-coupled receptor on somatotrophs |
| Principal mediator | IGF-1 | Rises indirectly after growth hormone release |
Tesamorelin binds to growth hormone-releasing hormone receptors on the surface of pituitary somatotroph cells. This binding activates adenylate cyclase, raising intracellular cyclic AMP levels and triggering the release of growth hormone into circulation. The elevated growth hormone then stimulates hepatic production of insulin-like growth factor 1. Because the effect is mediated through the endogenous axis, secretion remains subject to feedback regulation. This distinguishes it from direct growth hormone administration, which bypasses pituitary control entirely.
Clinical investigation has focused on HIV-associated lipodystrophy, a condition in which antiretroviral therapy contributes to abnormal fat distribution. Excess visceral adipose tissue accumulates in the abdomen while peripheral fat may be lost. Tesamorelin was evaluated for reducing this visceral fat depot, with trials measuring changes in abdominal fat by imaging rather than by body weight alone. The rationale rests on the known lipolytic effects of growth hormone. Effects on visceral fat are documented, while long-term outcomes regarding cardiovascular risk remain less clearly established.
研究背景集中在特定人群的体成分改变，尤其是与脂肪分布异常相关的内脏脂肪堆积。不同地区对它的监管状态与获批适应症并不一致，部分市场仅限特定诊断人群使用。在一般人群中的长期效应、与其他激素的相互作用以及停药后的维持情况仍属开放问题，现有数据不足以给出普遍结论。
tesamorelin 是一种人工合成的四十四肽，序列与内源性生长激素释放激素（GHRH）的 1-44 片段一致，区别在于 N 端加接了一个反式-3-己烯酰基。该修饰抑制二肽基肽酶 IV 的快速切割，从而延长分子在循环中的存留时间。作为肽类分子，它难以经胃肠道吸收，文献中讨论的均是注射途径。分类上通常把它归为 GHRH 类似物，以区别于生长激素本身。
== Clinical targets in various disorders == Preventing the release of DAMPs and blocking DAMP receptors would, in theory, stop inflammation from an injury or infection and reduce pain for the affected individual. This is especially important during surgeries, which have the potential to trigger these inflammation pathways, making the surgery more difficult and dangerous to complete. The blocking of DAMPs also has theoretical applications in therapeutics to treat disorders such as arthritis, cancer, ischemia reperfusion, myocardial infarction, and stroke. These theoretical therapeutic options include:
=== Combinatorial selection of RNA molecules enables in vitro evolution === Experimental methods were invented that allowed investigators to use large, diverse populations of RNA molecules to carry out in vitro molecular experiments that utilized powerful selective replication strategies used by geneticists, and which amount to evolution in the test tube. These experiments have been described using different names, the most common of which are "combinatorial selection", "in vitro selection", and SELEX (for Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment). These experiments have been used for isolating RNA molecules with a wide range of properties, from binding to particular proteins, to catalyzing particular reactions, to binding low molecular weight organic ligands. They have equal applicability to elucidating interactions and mechanisms that are known properties of naturally occurring RNA molecules to isolating RNA molecules with biochemical properties that are not known in nature. In developing in vitro selection technology for RNA, laboratory systems for synthesizing complex populations of RNA molecules were established, and used in conjunction with the selection of molecules with user-specified biochemical activities, and in vitro schemes for RNA replication. These steps can be viewed as (a) mutation, (b) selection, and (c) replication. Together, then, these three processes enable in vitro molecular evolution.
=== United States === US General Douglas MacArthur pointed out that before World War II, the US protected its western shores with a line of defense from Hawaii, Guam, to the Philippines. However, this line of defense was attacked by Japan with the Pearl Harbor bombing of 1941, thereby drawing the US into the war. The US subsequently launched the air Raid on Taipei (called Taihoku under Japan's empire) and launched the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The WW2 victory allowed the US to expand its line of defense further west to the coast of Asia, and thus the US controlled the first island chain. Between the end of WW2 and the Korean War, MacArthur praised Taiwan, located at the midpoint of the first island chain, as an 'unsinkable aircraft carrier'. In April 2014, the United States Naval Institute (USNI) assessed that the first island chain is the most effective point to counter any Chinese invasion. The US could not only cut off the People's Liberation Army Navy from entering the western Pacific, but also predict where they may move before trying to break through in the first place. The US and first island chain countries are able to coordinate because of the US military's freedom of navigation in the first chain block. A June 2019 article published by the United States Naval Institute (USNI) called for the navy to establish and maintain a blockade around the first island chain if the US was go to war with China.
== Health-related sustainable development goals == In September 2015, the UN General Assembly established Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs specify 17 universal goals, 169 targets, and 230 indicators. A paper published in The Lancet analyzed 33 health-related SDG indicators based on the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 (GBD 2015). Of 188 nations, Thailand ranked 112 (1=best; 188=worst). Rankings of other ASEAN nations were: Singapore, 2; Brunei, 21; Malaysia, 46; Indonesia, 91; Vietnam, 94; Philippines, 127; Cambodia, 130; Myanmar, 135; and Laos, 136.
I. Bilobed flap The design of the bilobed flap derives from the creation of two adjacent random transposition flaps (lobes). In its original design, the leading flap is applied to cover the defect, and the second flap, is emplaced where the skin flexes more, and fills the donor-site wound (from where the first flap was harvested), which then is closed primarily, with sutures. The first flap is oriented geometrically, at 90 degrees from the long axis of the wound (defect), and the second flap is oriented 180 degrees from the axis of the wound. Although effective, the bilobed flap technique did create troublesome "dog ears" of excess flesh that required trimming and it also produced a broad skin-donor area that was difficult to confine to the nose. In 1989, J. A. Zitelli modified the bilobed flap technique by: (a) orienting the leading flap at 45 degrees from the long axis of the wound; and (b) orienting the second flap at 90 degrees from the axis of the wound. Said orientations and emplacements eliminated the excess-flesh "dog ears", and thus required a smaller area of donor skin; resultantly, the broad-based, bilobed flap is less prone to the "trap door" and the "pin cushion" deformities common to skin-flap transposition procedure.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Taubman Investment Co. subsidiary === In 1982, A. Alfred Taubman purchased A&W and placed it under Taubman Investment Co. Taubman only purchased the restaurant company and not A&W Beverages. The chain dropped to fewer than 500 locations in the mid-1980s. A freeze on issuing franchises was put in place. Taubman wanted to restructure the chain by changing its "outdated" image. Franchisees were being neglected in the United Fruit phase. Taubman opted to withdraw agreements with 100 franchisees that were performing poorly and ousted 80% of its workforce. With this, the new management decided to split its fast-food restaurants into two units – the conventional orange roof A&W restaurants, which were still the majority, and A&W Great Food Restaurants. In 1983, A&W opened its first restaurant in Thailand, at the Central Ladprao shopping mall in Bangkok. In 1985, A&W began offering the Third Pounder to compete with McDonald's Quarter Pounder. As advertised, the Third beat the Quarter in taste tests and was less expensive by weight. In his 2007 memoir, former owner A. Alfred Taubman claimed research had revealed that it had been unsuccessful in part due to Americans' widespread innumeracy, specifically their inability to understand fractions: 1/3 was perceived as smaller than 1/4 (due to the smaller denominator) despite being a larger quantity. The burger was relaunched in 2021 as the 3/9 Pound burger, humorously attempting to capitalize on the now-popular fractions misunderstanding story.
== Mechanical comminution == Mechanical comminution is the dominant family of techniques for industrial micronization. The process typically begins with coarse size reduction — crushing by hammer or impact mills and cutting by blade mills — which produces feed material in the millimetre-to-coarse-micrometre range from bulk solids. Conventional tumbling ball mills, in which a rotating drum loaded with steel or ceramic grinding media reduces the feed by impact and abrasion, are widely used for grinding in the 50–500 μm range but do not typically achieve micrometre-scale particle sizes on their own. True micronization to the 1–10 μm range is achieved by higher-energy mechanical techniques, principally jet milling for dry powders and wet bead milling or high-pressure homogenization for aqueous suspensions, which are described in the following sections. Industrial pharmaceutical micronization is dominated by mechanical comminution methods, particularly air-jet milling (also called fluid energy milling) and cryogenic milling. These mechanical methods scale from gram-level development batches to multi-metric-ton commercial campaigns and operate under current good manufacturing practice (cGMP) regulations such as 21 CFR Part 211 and ICH Q7. The choice of micronization technology depends on the active pharmaceutical ingredient's physical properties. Air-jet milling produces narrow, log-normal particle-size distributions typically with D50 below 5 µm and span ≤ 2, and is the standard approach for dry powder inhalation products and poorly soluble oral solids.
1998 A record for the duration of life among males. The Danish-American Christian Mortensen lived 115 years and 252 days. 1998 Scientists managed to extend, in a laboratory environment, the life of normal human cells beyond the Hayflick limit using telomerase. 1999 Establishment of the Buck Institute for Research on Aging – the first institute originally established primarily to study intervention into the aging process. 1999 Sierra Sciences, a biotechnology company focused on aging research with the goal of curing human aging, was founded by William H. Andrews.
There are a number of mechanisms through which religion may make a person happier, including social contact and support that result from religious pursuits, the mental activity that comes with optimism and volunteering, learned coping strategies that enhance one's ability to deal with stress, and psychological factors such as "reason for being." It may also be that religious people engage in behaviors related to good health, such as less substance abuse, since the use of psychotropic substances is sometimes considered abuse. The Handbook of Religion and Health describes a survey by Feigelman (1992) that examined happiness in Americans who have given up religion, in which it was found that there was little relationship between religious disaffiliation and unhappiness. A survey by Kosmin & Lachman (1993), also cited in this handbook, indicates that people with no religious affiliation appear to be at greater risk for depressive symptoms than those affiliated with a religion. A review of studies by 147 independent investigators found, "the correlation between religiousness and depressive symptoms was -.096, indicating that greater religiousness is mildly associated with fewer symptoms." The Legatum Prosperity Index reflects the repeated finding of research on the science of happiness that there is a positive link between religious engagement and well-being: people who report that God is very important in their lives are on average more satisfied with their lives, after accounting for their income, age and other individual characteristics.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
One prominent case was the classification of ascolichen families by the structure of the ascus apex (the tip of the spore sac). Josef Hafellner (1984) reorganized many ascolichen families by ascus-apex staining (amyloid ring present vs. absent), treating that feature as primary. Later DNA work found several of those families to be polyphyletic: the ascus type had arisen independently in unrelated lineages. The results echoed Nylander's century-old warning against single-trait taxonomy. Leif Tibell (1998) urged that robust taxa rest on multiple, independent characters. Pier Luigi Nimis (1998) warned that elevating every apparent clade to genus rank risks "explosive inflation" and listed five tests—monophyly, formal analysis, ≥ 1 diagnostic trait, broad sampling, and demonstrable informational gain—before renaming species. Where those tests are not met, Nimis advised using subgeneric rank so that binomials remain stable. Tibell further separated goals: classification should provide a stable, useful scheme, whereas phylogeny seeks the full branching pattern. He argued that constant renaming for every new tree can undermine nomenclatural stability; revisions should await strong, multi-line evidence. These philosophical perspectives influenced how lichenologists handled emerging molecular results a few years later. By the late 1990s lichenologists, trained in data matrices and synapomorphy logic, were ready to fold DNA data into taxonomy.
Hydrophilic/cytosolic – are soluble in water and are localized at the cytosol, including cAMP, cGMP, IP3, Ca2+, cADPR and S1P. Their main targets are protein kinases as PKA and PKG, being then involved in phosphorylation mediated responses. Hydrophobic/membrane-associated – are insoluble in water and membrane-associated, being localized at intermembrane spaces, where they can bind to membrane-associated effector proteins. Examples: PIP3, DAG, phosphatidic acid, arachidonic acid and ceramide. They are involved in regulation of kinases and phosphatases, G protein associated factors and transcriptional factors. Gaseous – can be widespread through cell membrane and cytosol, including nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. Both of them can activate cGMP and, besides of being capable of mediating independent activities, they also can operate in a coordinated mode.
== Use outside archaeology == Archaeology is not the only field that uses radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dates can also be used in geology, sedimentology, and lake studies, for example. The ability to date minute samples using AMS has meant that palaeobotanists and palaeoclimatologists can use radiocarbon dating directly on pollen purified from sediment sequences, or on small quantities of plant material or charcoal. Dates on organic material recovered from strata of interest can be used to correlate strata in different locations that appear to be similar on geological grounds. Dating material from one location gives date information about the other location, and the dates are also used to place strata in the overall geological timeline. Radiocarbon is also used to date carbon released from ecosystems, particularly to monitor the release of old carbon that was previously stored in soils as a result of human disturbance or climate change. Recent advances in field collection techniques also allow the radiocarbon dating of methane and carbon dioxide, which are important greenhouse gases.
=== A10AD Insulins and analogues for injection, intermediate- or long-acting combined with fast-acting === A10AD01 Insulin (human) A10AD02 Insulin (beef) A10AD03 Insulin (pork) A10AD04 Insulin lispro A10AD05 Insulin aspart A10AD06 Insulin degludec and insulin aspart A10AD30 Combinations
Shanker noted that a Russian military exercise conducted in July near the Georgian border, called Caucasus 2008, "played out a chain of events like the one carried out over recent days." More than 1,000 American military participated in an exercise in Georgia in July, which trained Georgians for Iraq mission, not for offensive operations or homeland defense. In August 2008, Alexander Rahr, an expert on Russia and Putin, said: "This was a proxy war, not about South Ossetia, but about Moscow drawing a red line for the west. They marched into Georgia to challenge the west. And the west was powerless. We're dealing with a new Russia." Rahr later stated: "The war in Georgia has put the European order in question. The times are past when you can punish Russia." Director of Institute of Euro-Atlantic Cooperation Aleksandr Sushko wrote, "An invasion of Ukraine by 'peacekeeping tanks' is just a question of time. Weimar Russia is completing its transformation into something else. If Russia wins this war, a new order will take shape in Europe which will have no place for Ukraine as a sovereign state." Suskho suggested that Ukraine would be attacked no later than 2017.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The amino acid sequence matches human growth hormone-releasing hormone, but the amino terminus carries a trans-3-hexenoyl group instead of a free amine. That single structural change chiefly affects enzymatic stability rather than receptor selectivity.
Growth hormone released from the pituitary stimulates IGF-1 production in the liver and other tissues, so circulating IGF-1 generally rises during exposure. The size of the rise varies between individuals and depends on baseline hormonal status and other concurrent factors.
Reported imaging studies focus on visceral adipose tissue, where reductions are more consistently observed across trials. Subcutaneous depots show smaller and less reproducible changes, so the two compartments should not be treated as equivalent.
It mirrors the 44-residue form of human growth hormone-releasing hormone. A hexenoyl group on the N-terminal tyrosine distinguishes it from the unmodified hormone. The change is intended to improve resistance to enzymatic breakdown.